Common Abbreviations and Acronyms Used in Traffic Law Enforcement

The following are some of the more prevalent acronyms used in traffic lawenforcement, and their meanings:

ALR/ALS:Administrative License Revocation or Administrative LicenseSuspension. This is referred to in the context of a state statute that permitsa police officer to seize a license of a driver who refuses an alcohol test ortests over the legal alcohol limit. The driver is given a temporary license andscheduled for a prompt administrative hearing before the state driver licensingagency. ALR/ALS does not replace criminal court action for driving whileintoxicated. The purpose of ALR/ALS is to remove the hazard of the drinkingdriver from the road in a speedier fashion.

AAMVA: The American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators.

AAMVANET:The American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators' dataservices network contains the National Driver Register, Commercial DriverLicense Information System, and other information of interest to licensing,regulatory, and law enforcement agencies.

AASHTO:The American Association of State Highway Trans-portation Officials.

BAC: Blood Alcohol Concentration. This is measured in driving-while-intoxicated cases.

CAMPAIGN SAFE & SOBER: A two-year NHTSA program to reduce alcohol-related fatalities to 15,400 and increase safety belt use to 75 percent by 1997. These goals will be accom-plished through a combination of enforcement, public information and education, and legislativeinitiatives.

CARE: Combined Accident Reduction Effort. Operation CARE, a group of statepolice and highway patrol agencies who conduct unified and concentrated effortsin traffic law enforce-ment along interstate highways, particularly on holidayweekends.

CDL: A Commercial Driver's License issued by a state, entitling a person tooperate a commercial motor vehicle weighing in excess of 26,001 poundsmanufacturer's gross vehicle weight rating, carries 16 or more passengersincluding the driver, or carries hazardous materials.

CDLIS: The nationwide Commercial Driver's License Information System, whichcontains all commercial driver license information including driving historiesof problem commercial drivers. It is typically on-line with the Motor CarrierSafety Assistance Program (MCSAP) agencies in the various states.

CHEM-TREK: A 24-hour toll-free telephone service that provides law enforcementand emergency response agencies with information for identifying hazardousmaterials involved in spills, and recommends mitigation strategies. Chem-Trekis sponsored by the National Chemical Manufacturers' Asso-ciation.

CVSA: The Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance.

DARE: Drug Abuse Resistance Education, a copyrighted curricu-lum. The program,which trains police officers to present anti-drug programs in public schools,was started by the Los Angeles Police Department.

DOT: The U.S. Department of Transportation. Also applies to departments oftransportation in various states, such as the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) and the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PENNDOT).

DRE: A Drug Recognition Expert. Trained and certified in the IACP DrugEvaluation and Classification Program, a DRE is experienced in administering abattery of physical tests and clinical observations to suspected drug impaireddrivers.

DUI: Driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, a criminal offense inmost states and provinces.

DWI: Driving while intoxicated; the same as DUI.

EVOC: Emergency Vehicle Operator's Course. A curriculum developed by NHTSA incooperation with national police training professionals to teach propertechniques for operation of police and other vehicles in emergencyconditions.

FARS: The Fatal Accident Reporting System, maintained by the National HighwayTraffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). The system gathers data on all fatalaccidents in the United States through reports collected by state-levelagencies.

FBINA: The Federal Bureau of Investigation's National Academy located atQuantico, Virginia. The academy offers a command training program forhigh-level officials of state and local law enforcement agencies, and policeofficials from foreign countries.

FEMA: The Federal Emergency Management Administration, located at Emmetsburg,Maryland, which provides federal emergency assistance at the scenes ofcatastrophes and national disasters, operates the National Fire Academy, andpublishes the national model curriculum for first responders to hazardousmaterials accidents.

FHWA: The Federal Highway Administration in the U.S. Department ofTransportation, which administers federal highway trust fund expenditures tothe individual states, and sets standards for the construction and maintenance of inter-statehighways.

FMVSS: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards as promulgated by the NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration.

FOP: The Fraternal Order of Police, a national police organization sometimesinvolved in labor activities as a collective bargaining agent.

FRA: The Federal Railroad Administration is the entity within the U.S.Department of Transportation which monitors the safe operation of railroads. Itdevelops and enforces rail safety regulations, investigates accidents, managesrail safety and highway-rail grade crossing safety programs.

GCCI: Grade Crossing Collision Investigation, a highway-railroad grade crossingsafety awareness program, coordinated through a national railroad safetyprogram, Operation Lifesaver. GCCI provides one to three-day training classes,at no cost to the agency, tailored to specific law enforcement agency needs.

HAZMAT: Hazardous materials, generally used in the context of hazardousmaterials regulatory enforcement.

HGN: Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus, which uses a phenomenon brought on by alcoholand other substances, to assist in determining the blood alcohol level or drugimpairment of suspected drunk drivers by examining the angle of onset ofnystagmus, a jerking of the eyeballs.

HSC: The Advisory Committee on Highway Safety of the Inter-national Associationof Chiefs of Police, Inc.

IACP: The International Association of Chiefs of Police, Inc.

IADLEST: The International Association of Directors of Law EnforcementStandards and Training (POST).

ICS: Incident Command System, the system used by fire departments andpolice agencies to organize and implement emergency measures to mitigate majorincidents.

IPTM: The Institute of Police Technology and Management at the University ofSouth Florida in Jacksonville, Florida, which conducts law enforcement trainingprograms and operates a radar testing laboratory.

ITE: The Institute of Transportation Engineers.

IVHS: Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems, a system of computerized hazarddetection and warning, trip routing and other capabilities, which interfaceson-board computers in vehicles with on-board radar and electronic roadsidewarning beacons. J. Stannard Baker Award: An annual award presented by the InternationalAssociation of the Chiefs of Police and the National Sheriffs' Association tostate, county and local police officers and private citizens who have madeoutstanding contributions to the field of traffic safety. The award is namedafter the founder of the Traffic Safety Institute at Northwestern University.Winners are selected by the IACP Advisory Committee on Highway Safety and theNational Sheriffs' Association.

MCSAP: The Motor Carrier Safety Assistance Program, a system of federal fundingof state agencies to assist the federal Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety (BMCS)in enforcing motor carrier safety and hazardous materials regulations at thestate level.

NDLC: The National Driver License Compact, a program administered by AAMVA inwhich approximately 43 states participate.

NDR: The National Driver Register, a NHTSA program linked by AAMVANET andmaintained by the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators.

NHTSA: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, the entitywithin the U.S. Department of Transportation which provides federal grants tostate pass-through agencies for the maintenance of innovative traffic safetyprograms, conducts research, and sets federal motor vehicle safety standards(FMVSS).

NIST: The National Institute of Standards and Technology, formerly the NationalBureau of Standards.

NMSL: The National Maximum Speed Limit as adopted by Congress and the NationalHighway Traffic Safety Admin-istration Federal Highway Administration,currently 65 mph on most interstate highways.

NSA: The National Sheriffs' Association.

NSC: The National Safety Council.

NTC: The National Troopers' Coalition.

NTSB: The National Transportation Safety Board, which investigates majortransportation accidents and makes recom-mendations for improved transportationsafety.

NUTI: The Northwestern University Traffic Institute at North-western Universityin Evanston, Illinois, which conducts research and offers innovative trafficsafety training programs, including the so-called “long course,” forcommanders of police department traffic bureaus and divisions.

OL: Operation Lifesaver, a nationwide, nonprofit public informa-tion andeducation program dedicated to reducing crashes, injuries and fatalities athighway-rail grade crossings.

OOT: Officer on the Train, a highway-railroad grade crossing safety awarenessprogram coordinated through a national rail-road safety program, OperationLifesaver. OOT places police officers aboard trains to radio traffic violationsto other officers strategically located at or near grade crossings that have ahistory of collisions and traffic violations.

Operation Pipeline: An enforcement effort along major highway corridors toidentify and intercept drug couriers. The operation commonly uses profiles oftypical vehicles and driver behaviors that have been proven in the past toindicate a vehi-cle or driver is transporting narcotics or dangerous drugs.

OPUE: Occupant Protection Usage and Enforcement. A NHTSA program designed toprovide police agencies with a model curriculum and programs to promote andenforce the use of safety belts and child safety seats.

OSHA: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the U.S. Departmentof Labor, which sets standards in many occupational safety areas, including theallowable emissions of police traffic radar devices.

OUIL: Operating Under the Influence of Liquor, a criminal charge similar to DWIor DUI.

PBT: A Preliminary Breath Test, usually accomplished by means of an electronicor balloon-style device which determines at roadside whether or not a driverhas consumed alcoholic bev-erages, and to what extent.

PMVI: Periodic Motor Vehicle Inspection, generally a statewide program for thesafety inspection of vehicles either at state-owned inspection stations orlicensed private stations.

PTS: Police Traffic Services.

RSPA: The Research and Special Programs Administration of the U.S. Departmentof Transportation, which is responsible for promulgating the provisions of theCode of Federal Regula-tions pertaining to the transportation of hazardousmaterials.

SACOP: The State Associations of Chiefs of Police, a division of the IACP.

SAFETYNET: Computerized nationwide data bank maintained by the Motor CarrierSafety Assistance Program for tracking commercial driver enforcement.

ST:Standardized Field Sobriety Testing, a model curriculum developed by theIACP Highway Safety Advisory Committee and NHTSA for performing uniform andstandardized road-side physical tests on suspected drunken drivers, based onmedically approved techniques.

STEP: Selective Traffic Enforcement Programs, targeted to the times of day,days of week, locations, and types of violations that cause accidents; an earlyform of directed patrol but specifically devised for traffic enforcement.

TITLE 49: Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which contains theregulations on the interstate transportation of hazardous materials.

UTCD: Uniform Traffic Control Devices Committee, a group of primarily engineerswho maintain and revise the National Manual on Uniform Traffic ControlDevices.

UVC: The Uniform Vehicle Code, a model code that is maintained by a standingcommittee of experts, the National Committee on Uniform Traffic Laws andOrdinances.

VDP: Violator Directed Patrol.

AAMVA (The American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators) Thisorganization represents the driver license and motor vehicle registrationagencies in the United States, the District of Columbia, and the CanadianProvinces. The organization is regionalized, with a regional staff memberliving within each region. Its headquarters in the Washington, D.C., area has asalaried executive director with the full-time task of overseeing AAMVAfunctions and staff, including the following:

AAMVANET (The American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators Network) isa teletype network that connects all member agencies and several federalagencies. The commercial driver license information system (CDLIS) and theNational Driver Register (NDR) are connected to this network. Administrativemessages, as well as driver license and registration checks, are available.The Driver License Committee is comprised of the various administratorsinvolved in issuing driver's licenses. Many issues dealt with in this committeehave a direct impact on law enforcement.

IRP (The International Registration Plan) is a prorating system of registeringcommercial vehicles between the states. AAMVA and the private sector workclosely with member states to encourage and further enhance this concept. Underthe concept, a commercial vehicle is registered in the homestate and issued a plate marked "APPORTIONED." At the time ofregistration, the applicant declares any other IRP member states in which heintends to operate, and a prorated portion of the registration fee is forwardedto each of these member states.

PTS (The Police Traffic Services Committee) is the only law enforcement groupwithin the AAMVA. This committee is made up of representatives of many of thesame agencies that belong to the Division of State and Provincial Police of theInternational Association of Chiefs of Police, Inc. It is impor-tant tomaintain the law enforcement presence at AAMVA in order to have an impact onAAMVA's decisions in the driver licensing and registration areas. Theadditional benefit of having the support of both the IACP and AAMVA on lawenforcement issues is positive. Because the motor vehicle administrators arethe dues paying members of AAMVA, however, they generally have sufficient votesto affect any decisions within their own administrations, and the police input,from a practical standpoint, is mostly advisory.The Registration and Title Committee, as in the case of the Driver LicenseCommittee, affects law enforcement directly. The issues of whether one or twoplates should be issued to a vehicle, what kind of plates should be issued, andhow they should be displayed, as well as anti-theft issues affecting thetitling of motor vehicles, receive serious consideration by this committee.

AASHTO (The American Association of State Highway Traffic Officials)This association consists mainly of the directors of the public works andhighways or transportation agencies in the United States. Their main thrust isin Washington, D.C., where the federal highway trust fund monies are dispensedby Congress. This group is well-staffed and powerful as a lobbying group.Generally, the practical way for law enforcement to have input and dialoguewith AASHTO is through a state member agency rather than through theassociation staff. The Traffic Safety Committee deals with traffic safety issues but mostly fromthe engineering standpoint. There is no representation from the area of lawenforcement on this committee, nor is AASHTO currently represented in any lawenforcement groups.

ASLET (The American Society of Law Enforcement Trainers)Headquartered in Lewes, Delaware, this fast-growing association is a looselyknit group of national law enforcement instructors, both free-lance andemployed by state and local training institutions and police departments.

CSG (The Council of State Governments) This national organization hasrepresentation from the executive level of each state's government.

CVSA (The Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance)Made up of enforcement agencies in many of the United States and Canadianprovinces, this federation is responsible for enforcing the state-levelequivalence of the federal Office of Motor Carriers Rules, and the HazardousMaterials Regulations contained in Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations.In some states, membership consists of the state police and highway patrol,while in others it consists of the agency that issues contract carrieroperating rights, or the state transportation agency that operates the scalesused for truck weight and size enforcement, or whatever agency handles thefederal Motor Carrier Safety Assistance (MCSAP) Program for that state. To joinCVSA, a state must agree to conduct uniform roadside safety inspections ofmotor carriers and apply a sticker recognized by other member jurisdictions, soas to avoid putting interstate truckers through multiple roadside inspectionsin different states during the same time frame.

IACP (The International Association of Chiefs o f Police, Inc.)Headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia, the IACP has a membership of nearly14,000 police executives around the world, and operates with a salariedexecutive director and paid staff.

S&P (Division of State and Provincial Police) is comprised of 49 statepolice, departments of public safety, and highway patrol agencies in the UnitedStates, plus several provincial agencies in Canada and the Canadian RoyalMounted Police, who also provide traffic enforcement in some provinces inCanada. S&P has a division director and staff at the IACP headquarters. Thedivision is divided into four US regions that also include the contiguousportions of Canada. These regions are the Mountain Pacific, North Central,Southern, and North Atlantic. Each region has a regional chairman, and onegeneral chairman on a nationwide level represents the S&P Division on theexecutive board of the IACP.

HSC (IACP Advisory Committee on Highway Safety) consists of a cross-section ofstate and local police commanders who set policy and determine the IACP goalsin the area of highway safety. The committee is appointed by the IACPpresident, and usually contains from 23 to 26 members. The members come fromall types and sizes of law enforcement agencies, with consultants andrepresentatives from the private sector as well. Other law enforcement groups,such as sheriffs, and government agencies, such as the Federal HighwayAdministration and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, are alsorepresented. The committee is staffed by S&P personnel.

DRE Section (Drug Recognition Experts) has been established with the IACPS&P Division to represent the DREs across the country. DRE training leadsto a certification program that establishes minimum skills for detecting andprosecuting the drug-impaired driver.

TAP (Technical Advisory Panel), appointed by the chairman of the IACPHighway Safety Advisory Committee, contains representatives from variousdisciplines such as prosecutors, chemists, medical personnel, and policeofficers who are directly involved in the DRE and SFST programs. TAP advisesthe Highway Safety Committee and assists with keep-ing the DRE and SFSTcurricula and certification regulations updated.

RATS (Radar Advisory Technical Subcommittee), appointed by the chairman of theIACP Highway Safety Committee, consists of police officers, operators oftesting laboratories, and manufacturers of traffic radar and LIDAR (LIghtDetec-tion and Ranging) devices, along with a member from the NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology (NIST). RATS advises the Highway SafetyCommittee on the radar testing program, which is overseen by the HSC andinvolves five testing laboratories across the nation and an establishedconsu-mer product list (CPL) of acceptable radar units.State and Provincial Police Planners consists of planners from the state andprovincial agencies, including state police, highway patrols, and departmentsof public safety, comprising the IACP S&P Division. The group meetsannually to discuss mutual issues affecting their agencies. Staff is providedby the S&P Division.

SPADS (The State Police Academy Directors' Association) consists of thecommanders and managers of the state police and highway patrol agencies in theUnited States and Canadian provinces who conduct training academies and areattached to the members of the IACP State and Provincial Division. Annualmeetings are held and items of mutual concern are discussed. Staff is providedby the S&P Division.

SACOP (The State Association of Chiefs of Police) is an IACP divisionconsisting of a coalition of state associations representing police chiefs intheir states. State police agencies and major city chiefs may belong to somelocal SACOP associations in addition to being represented independently. SACOP isrepresented on the IACP Executive Board by a general chairman but has nodedicated staff. The Major City Chiefs is loosely knit group of chiefs from the largermetropolitan areas of the country. Meetings are called to discuss issues ofmutual concern and seek solutions. This group has no dedicated representativeof this group on the IACP Executive Board nor a dedicated IACP staff; however,because of their prominence and professional competence, individual membersusually are represented as individuals on the IACP's Board of Officers.

IADLEST (The International Association of Directors of Law EnforcementStandards and Training) This group is composed of the staffs and directors ofthe states POST (Police Officer Standards and Training) councils, boards andcommissions, and other regulatory agencies that set the standards for policeofficer certification and training. Membership is also extended to staffs ofcertified police academies in each state and to similar agencies in Canada andother nations. IADLEST commends model standards for POST agencies and policeacademies and develops model curricula in many areas, including policeemergency driver training and the operation of electronic speed measuringdevices, such as radar, photo radar, and LIDAR. The group is well-funded buthas no permanent headquarters. The secretariat is located in the office ofwhoever is the president of the association in a given year.

NAGHSR (The National Association of Governors ' Highway SafetyRepresentatives) These are the state-level administrators who control the federal funds enteringeach state from NHTSA and, in some instances, the FHWA. Each state is requiredto have a governor's highway safety representative so that it is represented inthis group.

NATIONAL ALERT A nationwide organization of police emergency driver training instructors,NATIONAL ALERT meets periodically, usually at the FBI National Academy inQuantico, Virginia, to discuss matters of mutual interest.

NCSL (The National Conference of State Legislators)This group is composed of speakers of states houses of representatives,presidents of state senates, majority and minority leaders and whips, andinfluential committee chairmen and members of the various state legislatures.They meet periodically to discuss trends in legislation and to share resourcesand ideas.

NCUTLO (The National Committee on Uniform Traffic Laws and Ordinances) Thisgroup is responsible for maintaining the cutting edge of legislation and forpublishing the uniform vehicle code (UVC), a recommended model code used by lawenforcement agencies, motor vehicle administrators, and legislators toformulate new traffic laws and ordinances. The goals of the group is (1) tohave uniformity among the traffic laws and ordinances of the various states andjurisdictions, so that persons traveling from one state or community to anotherwill not unwittingly find themselves in violation of some unique law thatexists only in one jurisdiction; and also (2) to address traffic safetyproblems with innovative and effective legislation. This group is comprised ofa cross-section of voting members, including officials of state agencies,nonprofit organizations, and dues paying private sector representatives, whoserve indefinite terms. The secretariat is currently located at the TrafficInstitute of Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. The group meets atleast biennially to debate proposed changes to the Uniform Code.

NGA (The National Governors’ Association) This organization consists ofthe governors of the 50 states and the premiers of the Canadian provinces andtheir top staffs. Members meet periodically to discuss issues of mutual concern among the states,and to support, propose, or endorse legislation in many areas, includingcriminal laws and highway safety.

NOBLE (The National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives)Headquartered in the Washington, D.C., area, NOBLE is comprised of AfricanAmerican command officers in law enforcement agencies. It conducts trainingprograms in areas such as cultural diversity and domestic violence, promotesproactive policies to end discrimination in law enforcement agencies, and takespositions on legislation.

NSA (The National Sheriffs' Association) Comprised of the elected lawenforcement officials at the county level throughout the United States, NSA hasa Traffic Safety Committee and is also represented on the Highway SafetyAdvisory Committee of the IACP with special consultant status.

NSC (The National Safety Council) This large nonprofit safety organizationfocuses on the prevention of home and industrial accidents and, in part, ontraffic safety. It also franchises a nationwide model defensive drivingcurriculum, including one targeted at police driver training.

UTCD (The Committee on Uniform Traffic Control Devices) This working committeeis composed mainly of traffic engineers employed by state highway departmentsand departments of trans-portation. It maintains the Manual on Uniform ControlDevices, the engineer's bible for the installation of traffic lights, signs,striping, and other traffic control devices. The IACP has one member (andalternate), who represents the law enforcement point of view on the issuesdiscussed. The discussions are lively, and law enforcement has one vote.

Are Effective Traffic Officers an Endangered Species?

Sometimes effective traffic enforcement in certain localities appears as thoughit has gone the way of the Dodo bird. The next time you take a trip for an hour or more, count how many police yousee who have stopped violators or whose vehicles are parked where they canstrategically observe the traffic flow. Better yet, observe how many officerspass a stranded motorist without stopping to assist. And when was the last timeyou noticed an officer in a marked patrol car watching an intersection for stopsign violations, or surveilling a stretch of road for motorists passing oversolid lines?

Inconsistent, Untargeted Enforcement

Too frequently, when enforcement does take place, it consists of issuing abatch of citations at a location where motorists may be exceeding the speedlimit but accidents are minimal, instead of targeting a location where unsafeactions are contributing to crashes.This type of inconsistent, "here today and gone tomorrow" enforcementonly arouses ire and disrespect on the part of the public.Motorists driving at legal speeds tend to be passed as though they werestanding still, and traffic control devices are routinely disregarded by somemotorists. Is it any wonder that criminals in some jurisdictions no longerhesitate to ply their trade for fear of being stopped by an alert trafficofficer? Or that some motorists whose aggressive driving mirrors an aggressivepersonality are increasingly settling traffic disputes with gunfire? Why shouldlicense revocations be a deterrent if the odds against being stopped areso great? And is it any wonder that despite improvements in vehicle and roadwaysafety and public crusades, the deaths, suffering and lost productivity fromtraffic crashes still make them America's number-one public health hazard?

Accountability Problems

If you ask your officers how they can drive around for eight hours withoutmaking a traffic stop, they will say they are busy running from call to call.Yet more creative use of whatever uncommitted time is available would yieldmajor dividends in the fight against traffic deaths and injuries.Some departments have raised a generation of officers who rely on moving radarfor all their traffic activity—if, indeed, they regard traffic work asreal police work at all. Officers with this attitude lose the manyopportunities presented when serious crimes are detected through a supposedlyrandom traffic stop.They also miss out on the public relations benefits accrued by them personallyand by the department from providing a variety of services and a sense ofsecurity to the traveling public.

Policy Considerations

Reversing this trend needs to start at the top. As administrators, through ourwritten policies, public pronouncements and personal examples, we need todemonstrate that we believe traffic work is an important part of everyuniformed officer's job. We should insist that line supervisors accompanytraffic officers on their shifts occasionally, and call them to task if theyfail to stop vehicles for not only moving traffic violations but also equipmentviolations, or if they fail to spend part of each shift on visible trafficpatrol.

Making Use of Data

Systems should be in place to review the traffic productivity of our officers,focusing on the number of contacts per hour rather than setting a quota forcitations. We need to look at the quality and variety of citations and warningsissued and match them up through an effective traffic records system to be surethe traffic laws are being enforced at the times and places where they canreduce collisions. We must be responsive to public complaints about dangeroustraffic conditions. And we need to retrain our field training officers to besure they acquire the skills that good traffic officers should have, and passthem along to the new officers on the department.

Conclusion

If we allow good traffic work to go the way of the Dodo bird, we willeventually consign the entire patrol function to the same fate, because trafficis such an integral part of visible, alert patrol tactics. Once this type ofpolice work makes it to the endangered species list, it will take more than acouple of additional accredita-tion managers sitting in the office to restoresanity to our troubled streets and highways.

Traffic law enforcement gives officers at the state, local, and county policelevels the unparalleled opportunity to save lives. The causal relationshipbetween consistent, goal-oriented enforcement and casualty reduction standsclear and unimpeachable. Traffic enforcement is demonstrably justifiable on itsown merits. Yet, today an emerging secondary benefit reinforces the value ofroving patrol officers. They have become major crime fighters! America's long-standingreliance on the motor vehicle has put crime literallyon the nation's streets and highways. Murderers, robbers, auto thieves, anddrug traffickers all travel by motor vehicle. And when they violate trafficlaws—a frequent occurrence because criminals typically are preoccupied bytheir crimes—that familiar police light appears in the mirror. This oncemeant two things: a short conversation with the officer and a traffic citation.Today, much more can follow.

What happens in those few moments when an officer approaches a violatordescribes the quiet revolution taking place within law enforcement. Officersmore frequently recognize that the violator doesn't quite fit thecircumstances. The subject's demeanor, the caliber of responses to questions, a lack ofknowledge about the vehicle—these and similar factors noted by the alert,trained observer recommend further investi-gation. And further investigationpays off in criminal arrests. None of this results from mere luck. Specialized training, a growing reservoirof favorable experience and, perhaps most important, the intelligent warinessof the individual combine to transform him from a traffic officer intosomething more. It's as if we're getting two people for the price of one: anofficer skilled in traffic and another knowledgeable in general criminalinvestigative techniques.

Traffic Enforcement and Crime Reduction

University of Maryland Criminologist Lawrence S. Sherman rein-forces theimportance of traffic law enforcement in reducing general crime: “Thehigher the level of traffic enforcement, the lower the level of robbery.Aggressive traffic enforcement creates a broad general effect ofdeterrence.” He adds that some crimes—robbery, rape, burglary,aggravated assault, and car theft—can be prevented by a visible policepresence. This is precisely what highway patrols and the traffic units within state,county, and local police agencies offer: a visible presence and aggressivetraffic enforcement. But the record now shows they provide the added bonus ofpotential criminal detection. The alert officer, patient and thorough, maycapture a felon, recover contraband, or disrupt a crime in progress.For example, a California Highway Patrol officer jotted down the plate numberof a Georgia car because he suspected it should have been registered inCalifornia. A follow-up check with Georgia authorities showed the car wassought in connection with the kidnaping of a 12-year-old girl. Two weeks laterthe officer spotted the same car, determined that it was still wanted, calledfor backup, and made the stop. The result: one kidnapper arrested, one12-year-old rescued.
A motorcycle officer saw two men running across the freeway, each carrying alarge box. They darted into the bushes before he could reach them. Two hourslater he sighted the same pair, again sprinting across the freeway and carryinglarge boxes. This time he arrived just as they disappeared into the shrubbery.He ordered them out, but they emerged empty-handed. A search produced severalboxes loaded with small appliances. The pair had systematically shopliftedmerchandise from a nearby mall, each time dashing across the freeway to a motelroom.

A third officer drove by a parked car; nothing appeared unusual, until hesaw two heads duck below the window line. He checked the license plate bycomputer and received the return message that the subjects were consideredarmed and dangerous. By now the vehicle was moving, and the officer followed,while calling for backup. The pursued vehicle fled at high speed. Moments laterthe car crashed, and the occupants were captured. Both were wanted on suspicionof kidnaping, armed robbery, rape, grand theft and attempted murder.

Violator-Directed Patrol

In 1987, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration conducted an “OperationPipeline” drug interdiction seminar in New Mexico, opening the vista ofexpanded criminal enforcement by traffic officers. Yet, the troubling echosounded by those already involved in Pipeline was the required specializationof personnel, meaning that traffic responsibilities had to be reducedproportionately. For agencies already struggling to handle traffic withdiminishing uniformed strength, siphoning resources to yet another new programwas unappealing. But the concept of drug enforcement made real sense; thechallenge became how to mount an unrelenting traffic enforcement effort, whileexpanding the capacity to conduct criminal investigations.Arizona met this challenge through a program called VDP (Violator DirectedPatrol). VDP concentrated uniformed strength in areas with a high frequency ofcollisions, and it upgraded the criminal investigation training of highwaypatrol officers— initially in a targeted area, but eventually includingall officers. VDP listed simple, practical objectives:

Provide maximum patrol visibility in areas of high-collision frequency.

Concentrate traffic enforcement on violations causing the most collisions.

Develop the ability and the willingness of the individual officer to increase criminal apprehensions, drug seizures, and recoveries of stolen vehicles.

Work closely with the Criminal Information Bureau by providing criminal intelligence information and referrals on patrol-generated criminal cases.

Increase, through training, the ability of officers to apprehend criminal violators.

In practice, Arizona found that a VDP project in a given area virtuallyeliminated collisions, thereby realizing the traffic safety objective. Thecriminal investigative objective required more time, because the skills beingtaught were new. Training dealt with a myriad of subjects. Officer safety wasstressed, particularly in situations requiring searches or arrests. Thefundamental cautions were reemphasized: Wear gloves, watch for needles, andcall for backup.
Time was invested in teaching probable cause. A few of the basics: Is thedriver the registered owner? Is the driver's ID valid? Are vehicle and driverfrom the same location? Does the driver know where and when the car was lastserviced? Is the car a rental? If so, did the driver rent it? Is the driverauthorized on the rental agreement? Is luggage in the vehicle? How long is thetrip? Plus many more. As training progressed, one thing became clear; there isno profile of the “typical criminal” or “typical drugtrafficker.” Indicators, certainly, but no-cut-and-dried formula.Experience reveals that people and vehicles of every description can becriminally involved.
Any stop begins with a traffic infraction, observed and identifiable.Development of probable cause for suspected criminal activity starts only afterthe legitimate traffic stop. And very often, it ends with a consent search,another critical element in many investigative sequences. Consent is the keyword. The subject must consent, preferably in writing.

Arizona's results have been rewarding. The Highway Patrol Bureau(500-plus officers) recovered 600 to 700 stolen vehicles per year before VDP.The figure doubled to 1,413 with VDP. Drug seizures and felony arrestsreflected similar increases. All of this was achieved while maintaining thedesired emphasis on traffic safety objectives; in fact, Arizona's trafficfatality rate stood at an all-time low.The California Highway Patrol initially became involved in Operation Pipelinebecause several Pipeline highways traverse the state, notably Interstate Routes5, 8, 10, 15, and 40. Officers working these highways learned the pertinentidentification skills and legal latitudes. So did commercial officers, whoseinvestigative abilities were upgraded through a program known as CONET(Commercial Officer Narcotic Enforcement Team). CONET also counts as fullpartners the 20 drug-sniffing dogs now fielded by the CHP.Next came training of all field officers, bringing the number of skilled patrolobservers to approximately 5,000. The results describe the payoff. The CHPmakes more in-custody arrests than any other California police agency, and manyof the arrests are of suspected felons.

How VDP Works

The new sensitivity imparted by the training boosted drug seizures and drugarrests, but the trigger mechanism remains a traffic stop. The seemingly minorinfraction can start a chain of events leading to a narcotics find. Here areexamples:

1. The driver of a vehicle stopped for a broken windshield could produce neither a driver's license nor vehicle registration. Prior to storing the vehicle, the officer made a routine inventory. The trunk contained 227 pounds of marijuana.

2. An officer issuing a citation was approached by another motorist seeking help to arrange a tow because his car engine was misfiring. The officer noticed that the vehicle displayed no registration stickers. He checked the plate number and discovered the vehicle was listed as stolen. He arrested the ver. A subsequet vehicle search uncovered drug manufacturing equipment, aphphetamine and marijuana.

3. Two men aboard a tractor-trailer stopped for a traffic violation exhibited what the CHP calls indicators—not a definition, but a suggestion to investigate further—of possible criminal association. Written consent to search the truck led to the discovery of 1,452 pounds of cocaine, valued at $57 million on the street.

4. Cocaine proved to be secreted in a passenger car searched with the driver's consent after being stopped for a traffic violation. A drug-sniffing K-9 quickly located a metal box, disguised as a gas tank, attached to the rear undercarriage. Inside: 20 pounds of the drug.

5. A freeway beat officer, going off-duty and heading toward his office, spotted a wrong-side driver on a city street. He made the stop, found the subject was under the influence; a vehicle inventory turned up a hypodermic containing a brown liquid. Interrogation led to an admission that the subject was on parole. The patrol office authorized a search of the subject's home, which uncovered several drug caches, including one in the wife's purse. She also was arrested for possession of narcotics.

6. Occasionally, the evidence simply presents itself. Investigating a crash, officers found an Uzi machine gun had been ejected from one vehicle. That dramatic clue led to a search of the suspect's clothing, revealing marijuana and a bundle of cash.

7. Finally, a traffic stop of a man driving a rental truck led to a consent search. This time the contraband was not drugs but stolen furniture worth $13,000.

Go Where the Problem Is

Thirty years ago, traffic enforcement emerged from the dark ages ofhit-and-miss deployment to the logical and effective strategy of selectiveenforcement. Go where the biggest problem is; attack the major causes. That'sthe basic reason drunk driving became such a high enforcement priority and whysafety belt enforcement is emphasized today. Effort applied in those two areasproduces proportionately greater benefits.Criminal enforcement in those earlier years was mostly a bonus. Felony arrestswere infrequent, not because criminals weren't using cars, but rather, theimportance of emphasizing criminal enforcement had not yet made itself widelyfelt within traffic work. The necessity for combining skills began to overtakeall police agencies, as phrases such as “cut-back management” and“doing more with less” became familiar. The urgency to run tighterships is never more obvious than now, when governments at all levels are shortof funds. The tendency to expect more of public employees is common and policeagencies are not exempt.Criminal investigators now look to road patrols for help in both gatheringintelligence and intercepting criminals on the streets and highways.

The reaction of state police and highway patrols has been positive, but theirresponse was restrained because the resource equation seemed out of balance.Shifting emphasis always means shifting resources from one priority toanother—or does it? That ultimately proved the key—finding a way toabsorb a new responsibility without undermining existing duties. Officersworking traffic enforcement, fulfilling a critical safety mission, canundertake the criminal identification task as long as they can handle it inparallel with the basic traffic assignment. History now declares that they canand they do, and that's why the new program works so well.
It also provides an answer to the challenge sometimes issued by irritatedmotorists reacting to a traffic stop: “Why aren't you out arrestingcriminals?” We are, but in addition to, not at the expense of, the trafficlaw enforcement responsibility. Patrolling our streets and highways remains the vital task of protecting public safety, through the proven deterrence of aggressive, intelligent traffic law enforcement. That won't change. What has changed is the level of policeofficers' capabilities. They just got better. And the public is reaping thebenefits.

“Community policing” is the watchword of the '90s. More communitiesare daily jumping on the bandwagon, and reports from consultants examining lawenforcement agencies from Boston to Los Angeles are recommending its adoptionas the best response to the crime problem. Refinements to community policing'sbasic concepts, such as Professor Herman Goldstein's “problem-orientedpolicing” have achieved success in localities as diverse as Newport News,Virginia, and London, England.If this type of policing is being touted as the answer to crime, perhaps it istime to look at its potential impact on a problem that is more preventable andlooms much larger in terms of its devastat-ing effect on the public—thedaily toll of death, injury and property damage on our nation's streets andhighways.In a recent year, according to statistics from the National Highway TrafficSafety Administration (NHTSA), a highway death occurred every 13 minutes in theUnited States. In contrast, the FBI Uniform Crime Reports figures indicated onemurder every 21 minutes in that same year—that is, 18,967 deaths due tomurders versus a total of 40,115 deaths in fatal traffic crashes. Additionally,3.2 million persons were injured in traffic crashes and economic damage totaled$137.5 billion—more than four times as much as the estimated $13 billioneconomic loss due to crimesIf our mission is truly “to protect and serve,” how better toaccomplish this than by making our streets and highways safer for those who usethem on a daily basis? Is there a way to apply the concepts of communitypolicing to the traffic problem?

Although the definition of community policing still appears somewhathazy, the following principles seem to have emerged almost everywhere it hasbeen truly implemented (as opposed to those jurisdictions where it is embracedonly in theory):

1. An admission that the police alone cannot solve the prob-lem; direct participation by citizens is also required.

2. A shift in the focus of problem definition to a customer orientation, and a corresponding concentration on those problems identified by the citizens themselves as being of greatest concern.

3. An emphasis on proactive, rather than reactive, policing, replacing a total preoccupation with 9-1-1 calls with efforts targeted at particular problems.

4. The identification and implementation of a range of non-traditional approaches.

5. The redirection of officers from their cruisers into more direct contact with the community, along with the dele-gation of decision-making authority to the patrol officer's level.

Let's examine these principles and see how community policing strategies can beapplied.

Admitting the Need for Citizen Help

Although our streets and highways have grown relatively safer over the pastdecade, with the death toll per 100 million miles dropping, an increase inlicensed drivers and registered vehicles, as well as congestion, is cloggingboth our arterial and our city streets. Traffic crashes remain the leadingaccidental cause of death in the U.S., and are responsible for a major negativeimpact on our economy. Most state, county, and local police departments areunderstaffed, and can use all the help they can get.Just as Neighborhood Watch programs have helped discourage residentialburglaries and led to the apprehension of criminals, so can group andindividual action by citizens lead to the identi-fication of unsafe streets andhighways and the apprehension of drunken and drugged drivers, as well as thosewhose total disrespect for law and order leads them to drive after theirlicenses have been suspended or revoked.A few states have experimented with REDDI (Report Every Drunk DriverImmediately) toll-free telephone lines where citizens can report drunk drivers,but we have only begun to scratch the surface of available citizen assistanceand involvement. Our crime prevention officers need to team up with our trafficofficers and let participants in Neighborhood Watch know how to reportdangerous drivers. Taxis, public utility vehicles and others with commercialtwo-way radio communications, drivers with cellular phones and truckers with CBradios can all be enlisted in the war on dangerous driving.

Having Our Customers Identify Problems

Social scientists have discovered that, in terms of its effect on the qualityof life in the United States, the fear of crime is perhaps as important as thepresence of crime itself. Similarly, practitioners of community policing havefound that helping residents clean up neighborhoods of such nuisances asabandoned cars and dilapidated buildings allows people to feel safer on thestreets, instills more pride in communities, and gets citizens in the habit ofworking with the police.Just as people fear a gang of roughnecks on the street corner or the presenceof a neighborhood drug hangout, so do they fear for the safety of theirchildren playing near the street if their neighborhood is plagued by screechingtires at all hours.

Thanks to interstate speed limits and monitoring criteria, trafficenforcement effort in recent years has been diverted to the interstate system.Citizens who do not respect the arbitrary 55 mph speed limits posted in areasselected because of population figures rather than traffic hazards, have cometo regard speed violations as trivial. We must try to restore respect fortraffic laws by deploying more officers to the locations where the citizensthemselves are troubled by dangerous drivers. We must teach our officers torely on more than just a radar gun. People will feel safer—and those proneto disobey the law will be more effectively deterred—if some of thelow-profile radio cars now sitting at crossovers could spend more of their timein high-visibility activities, such as monitoring solid lines, stop signs andschool bus stops; sitting in locations where neighbors complain about carelessdrivers; and frequently checking vehicles with defective lighting equipmentwhile patrolling an area characterized by licensed drinking establishments.

Targeting Proactive Enforcement

As police departments move away from the notion that all calls for service,regardless of their nature, require an immediate response by uniformed officersin radio cars, and adopt differential response strategies that permit the useof directed patrols designed according to crime analysis, we need to examineour traffic records systems, as well. Do our traffic records adequatelyidentify the times of day, days of the week, locations and violations that arecausing the most serious traffic crashes? Do the traffic citations issuedindicate adequate enforcement against these types of violations, or are ourofficers simply looking for easy targets?

In developing directed patrols, we need to be sure that traffic enforcement isone of the priorities, and that it is targeted toward the known causes ofcrashes and the traffic problems of most concern to our citizens. We must alsoencourage our officers to stop and direct traffic whenever possible at locations where congestionposes an annoyance to the traveling public.

Using Nontraditional Approaches

Saturation enforcement and the issuance of traffic tickets have traditionallybeen the primary means used by police to make our streets and highways safer.However, just as proponents of community policing have employed a broad rangeof strategies and involved other government and private agencies to attack thecrime problem, these strategies will also alleviate traffic problems. Ifavailable manpower does not permit adequate enforcement at a location whereillegal left turns are causing accidents, why not team up with the Public WorksDepartment to erect temporary barricades or some other solution? Why notconvince the city to condemn and tear down a vacant building to make room for aleft-turn storage lane? The possibilities are limitless, just as they are inany other form of community policing.

Delegating Authority

In these days when risk management and national accreditation are moving uscloser to a painting-by-the-numbers style of law enforcement, we must find newways to empower our employees to work on innovative solutions within thecommunity and make it clear that they will not be penalized for doing so. Wemust replace enforcement strategies that too often lead to officerssporadically “swooping down out of nowhere” to ticket citizens inresponse to a commander's once-a-month concerns about activity, or a loudcomplainer who gets the right ear at headquarters.Enforcement can be efficient and still not be effective, but effectiveenforcement by its very definition is always efficient. We need to move ourofficers out into the community, both to perform high-profile stationaryobservation at strategic times and locations and to make them available andapproachable to citizens who wish to exchange valuable information on neighborhood problems, crime and otherwise. It is no longer a viable excuse to say that our officers “don'thave the time”; indeed, we cannot afford not to develop this type ofinteractive policing.

Conclusion

Near the beginning of the twenty-first century, it appears that any economicrecovery may be shallow and gradual, and that police departments will find itdifficult to obtain the resources they need for the demanding jobs that lieahead. With deaths, injuries and property damage from traffic crashes eclipsingall other accidental causes of human suffering and economic loss, we cannotafford to neglect the traffic problem. By adapting community policingstrategies to traffic enforcement, we can “work smarter” and obtainmore community support for our efforts.

Many jurisdictions around the world are embracing the concepts of communitypolicing and problem-oriented policing as a means to draw the police and thepublic closer together and to make the most efficient use of scarceresources.

Citizens want law enforcement to help them with many concerns, includingstreet-level drug usage, deteriorating neighborhoods, and crimes of violence.Community policing and problem-oriented policing each posit the theory that theproblems of crime and disorder in the community cannot be solved by the policealone. The roots of these problems go deep into our culture and times. We needcommitment, involve-ment, and support from the total community as we go aboutthe task of reducing fear and making a safer environment.These new policing styles also realize that the officer on the beat or in thesquad car, delivering direct police services to the people, is often in thebest position to recognize problems and must be given reasonable latitude todevelop innovative and nontraditional solutions to these problems, in concertwith the community.

The IACP Highway Safety Advisory Committee is concerned that, in adopting thesenew policing strategies, communities do not overlook the number one publicsafety problem today, in terms of deaths and serious injuries and its impact onthe quality of life: traffic crashes. Nationally in the United States, morethan 40,000 people are killed in traffic crashes each year, and 3,200,000 areinjured. Thus, traffic deaths remain by far the largest single cause ofaccidental death. Traffic crashes cost U.S. society $137.5 billion a year in economic loss—including uninsured work losses, vehicledamage costs, and cargo loss— and outstrip cancer, heart disease, AIDS andall other causes of deaths for Americans age one to 44 years. The situation issimilar in most other industrialized nations.

As we redouble our efforts to improve policing methods and obtain morecommunity support and involvement, let us make sure that traffic enforcement isnot neglected. Without safe streets and high-ways, we cannot truly say we arereducing the level of community violence and fear, and making the streets safefor our citizens.

Setting Policy For Successful Traffic Enforcement

As the head of a law enforcement agency, you have the responsibility to provideguidance and direction to your employees in accomplishing the goals of yourorganization. As well, you should encourage them to participate actively inestablishing a standard of professionalism that will bring credit to them asindividual officers and to you and your organization.Deaths, injuries, and economic losses from traffic crashes consti-tute thenumber one public health problem in nearly every country in the free world. Asuccessful police administrator will use the “bully pulpit” of policymaking to ensure that his officers place the proper priority on trafficenforcement activities.

Defining Your Agency's Mission

Begin at the very basic level of your agency's mission statement, and make avalue statement as well. Make certain that the mission and value statementscontain strong wording that clearly tell both the public and the members of thedepartment that traffic enforcement is seen as a vital component of anycommunity or service-oriented policing effort, and the responsibility of everyuniformed officer, regardless of rank or assignment.Run your department according to a management-by-objectives or total qualitymanagement approach that includes a long-range strategic plan, and that trafficis represented in this plan.To emphasize this perspective at the operational level, traffic productivityshould be an aspect of the periodic personnel evalua-tions of all uniformedofficers. Data should be collected on which to base these evaluations. To avoidaccusations of setting a quota for enforcement, base your evaluation criteria on all self-initiated contacts, and do not overemphasize citations. First-line supervisors should take corrective action whenever an officer spends an appreciable amount of timeon the road without making a reasonable number of self-initiated trafficcontacts. Likewise, mid-managers should hold first-line supervisor's feet tothe fire to ensure they're carrying out their responsibilities. A component ofeach field training officer program should include sufficient emphasis ontraffic activities. When writing policies for your department, consult the standards contained inthe manual of the Commission for Accreditation of Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc(CALEA). That way, even if your department is not presently accredited, shouldyou desire to become accredited at some future date, you will have a lot lesswork to do to conform your policies to CALEA standards.

Concentrating Your Efforts

When you begin reviewing or developing traffic policies, concen-trate first onthe highest liability areas, which include pursuits, high-risk vehicleresponse, road blocks and forcible stopping tactics, and drunk and druggeddriver enforcement. Other important areas affecting traffic safety operationsinclude fleet accident review, transportation of prisoners, fuel economy, andvehicle specifications and equipment.Liability for you and your department arises either when you do not have apolicy or when a existing policy is inadequately explained through training oris not enforced.The policy and procedure manual should consist of procedural guidelines yourmembers will use to perform their daily duties, as well as the policiesthemselves, which will be short descriptions of agency goals in particularsituations. Detailed procedures for carrying out the policies should beexplained clearly and concisely. When writing policies, make sure you focus on the expected results, notjust the methods to be used in performing the task.

Operation of Emergency Vehicles

Training in the operation of emergency vehicles is one of the most importantissues currently facing police administrators. Adequate training must bemaintained to ensure that your officers are able to operate department vehiclescompetently during the response to an emergency and in pursuit situations. Inaddition, it is essential to develop a comprehensive emergency vehicleoperations policy that is specific to your particular agency, not simplyborrowed from elsewhere.Train each member of your department within the parameters of your particularagency's policy regarding both emergency response and pursuit. Make sure yourinstructors are well acquaint-ed with the policy and that their lesson plansconform to it. Do not have an unwritten response or pursuit policy—yourmembers need to know where you stand on the issue and what guidelines they mustfollow in these situations.Your pursuit policy, when developed, should describe specifically how yourdepartment members are to conduct themselves when faced with a pursuitsituation. The policy must address such issues as a clear, concise definitionof the term “pursuit,” because a realistic definition encouragescompliance.

Provide a precise description of the conditions under which your officers mayinitiate a pursuit. Pursuit should be discouraged for minor nonmovingviolations. Limited pursuit is acceptable for moving violations. Pursuit isgenerally acceptable for serious moving violations.The policy should indicate how a pursuit is to be initiated, including theemergency warning devices to be utilized, and notification of a supervisorand/or communications center.

The duties of the primary and other available units should be spelled outin the policy. The primary unit should focus on the pursued vehicle, and otherunits should focus on obstacles and other motorists. Your policy shouldprohibit the operation of several police vehicles in a convoy fashion during apursuit. When more than one vehicle is involved in a pursuit, the additionalvehicles should follow along at near-legal speeds and merely positionthemselves to be of assistance once the pursuit is terminated.Depending on the size of your department, the number of street supervisors andwatch commanders available, and the size and capability of the communicationscenter, you should consider making a supervisor responsible for monitoring theprogress of a pursuit. This supervisor should have the authority to terminatethe pursuit at any time he feels the dangers inherent in the pursuit outweighthe value of apprehending the pursuit vehicle. Factors to be considered by boththe supervisor and the driver of the pursuit vehicle should include the natureof the original violation, road and weather conditions, the nature of thepursuit locale, and the likelihood of success compared with the danger to thepublic. Reasons for discontinuing the pursuit should include loss of visualcontact, increased danger to the public, or obtaining enough identification toapprehend the violator at a later date.Forcible stopping techniques should only rarely be used to terminate a pursuit,because the U.S. Supreme Court has stated in Brower v. Inyo County that theyconstitute deadly force under some circumstances. Deadly force should only beused in the apprehension of someone who has committed a felony involving forceor violence and all other means to effect their apprehension have failed, orwhen reasonably believed necessary to save the lives of other innocentcitizens.

The technique of boxing in the pursuit vehicle between two patrol vehicles isextremely dangerous, not only to the suspect but to the operators of the patrolvehicles. Apprehending a motorist for traffic violations is seldom worthrisking a whiplash injury, or worse, to a police officer. Under nocircumstances should forcible stopping techniques such as rolling roadblocks or ramming be used, unlessthe officers have specifically received classroom and hands-on training inthese techniques.When stationary roadblocks are set up, ample advance warning should be given toother motorists, and an escape route should be allowed for the pursued vehicle.Otherwise, if the pursued vehicle becomes involved in a crash at a road blockand its driver or passenger is killed, the question will always arise as towhether or not deadly force was authorized. The use of hollow spikes sold byvarious police supply houses may be an acceptable alternative, but only whenthe use of such a technique is legally justified and the officers have beentrained in its use. Once a fleeing motorist has been apprehended, additional use-of-forceconsiderations come into play. An unfortunate incident can happen when policeofficers, high on adrenaline after a lengthy high-speed pursuit, confront anerrant motorist. An instance that occurs all too frequently involves a policeofficer who attempts to remove a motorist forcibly from a vehicle at gunpointand accidentally discharges his weapon. It is always preferable to wait forsufficient assistance before removing a motorist from a vehicle at the scene ofa high-risk stop and to use the “contact/cover” principle, where onearmed officer provides the firepower and an unarmed officer conducts thehandcuffing and search. Because of the ease with which modern semiautomaticweapons will discharge, it is extremely important that officers be trained inthe “on target-on trigger, off target-off trigger” principle ofhandling firearms. By exposing officers to scenario-type training with periodic retraining inthese techniques, officer self-discipline will be attained. It is alsonecessary to have a supervisor proceed to the scene as quickly as possible andassume control of the situation.

3-1-6 Response to Emergency Calls

Every police department should develop a response policy that providesassistance to officers when they are responding to various calls for service.For instance, when responding to an accident, a call for assistance, or anyemergency requiring officers to arrive at the scene as quickly and safely aspossible, they should be required to activate their emergency warning devicesand pay attention to state motor vehicle laws, including the conditions underwhich they may legally ignore traffic signals, the procedure to be followedwhen they do ignore the signal, and conditions under which they may exceed themaximum posted speed limits or disregard regulations governing direction ofmovement or turning in specified areas.Stress to the officers, both in the policy and during training sessions, thatthe emergency vehicle exemptions do not relieve the driver of an emergencyvehicle from the duty to drive with due regard for the safety of all persons;nor do these provisions protect a driver from the consequences of recklessdisregard for the safety of others.

Operating a police vehicle either in pursuit or in response to an emergencycall is extremely dangerous under conditions where the vehicle will be goingthe wrong way down a one-way street, entering a freeway entrance ramp from theopposite direction, or otherwise disregarding normal traffic flow conditions.Due to the extreme dangerousness of these tactics, they are seldompermissible. Policies should also provide that responses to non-injury crashes, servicecalls not involving a crime in progress, and other non-emergency situationsshould be accomplished at or below the speed limit, with regard to existingroadway and traffic conditions.

Mandatory Report On Pursuits

Your policy should require police officers to make a written report on everypursuit, whether successful or unsuccessful. These reports should be enteredinto a data bank to determine the extent to which your officers are engaging inhigh-speed pursuits, and the percentage of these actions that result incrashes. The report should also be reviewed by supervisors to ensure thatdepartmental policy was followed.

Fleet Accident Review

Officers should be given the opportunity to have their peers and supervisorsreview the events surrounding any fleet accidents in which they are involved.Also, they should be allowed to be present at that review and offer anyexplanation of the event they think is necessary.When preparing an accident review procedure, you should specify how theaccident is to be investigated. In some instances, it may be appropriate tohave the accident investigated by another law enforcement agency havingjurisdiction in the area. On occasion, however, it may be appropriate for yourdepartment to conduct its own internal accident investigation. Your policyshould address the various situations, and clearly describe under which optionthe investigation is to be conducted, as well as the routing of anyinvestigative reports for supervisory review.In the event that not all of your department fleet accidents are reviewedroutinely by an accident review board, your policy must clearly describe theprocedure for reviewing the reports and the protocol to be followed forconvening an accident review board if deemed appropriate.

The policy should provide a framework for the members of the accidentreview board to be empaneled, including membership of the panel, and inclusionof peers, supervisor participation, and testimony from the involved officer andan accident reconstruc-tionist, as well as the time frame for preparation ofthe report, notation of any training deficiencies or employee negligence andviolations of the law.The policy should emphasis that any disciplinary action taken as a result ofthe report will be separately considered and is not the responsibility of theboard. The duty of the board is simply to determine whether or not the accidentwas avoidable and if there are training or retraining implications.

Transportation Of Prisoners

The purpose of a prisoner transportation policy is to provide guidelines toyour employees when they are moving prisoners or persons in custody from oneplace to another. The following are several issues that should be addressed bysuch a policy.To comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the policy shouldexplain the procedures to follow when taking into custody persons with aphysical disability.Include the inspection of the department vehicle for possible presence ofweapons at the beginning of the shift, following the transportation of aprisoner, and at the conclusion of the shift.A policy on the transportation of juveniles and female prisoners should bedeveloped. If a prisoner of the opposite sex must be transported and no officerof the same sex is present, require the transporting officer to contactcommunications and have the name of the prisoner recorded, along with the timethe transport began and the mileage, time and location at the conclusion of thetransport.

Your prisoner transport policy should require that the safety screen bein place and the rear seat door handles deactivated. The policy should alsocover situations when it is unavoidably necessary to transport prisoners in avehicle without a cage.All prisoners should be handcuffed with the handcuffs double-locked, with theirhands behind their backs and palms facing outward. Exceptions to this arespecial situations such as transporting a prisoner obviously in a state ofpregnancy, with a physical disability, or with injuries that could beaggravated by standard handcuffing procedures; or handling one who is violentlyresisting arrest or manifests mental disorder such that he poses a threat tohimself or to the public. In the latter case, other devices such as straitjackets are required. Prisoners should never be handcuffed to any part of thevehicle, and the procedure of “hog tying” prisoners by handcuffingtheir arms through their legs should never be utilized because of the problemof prisoners dying from positional asphyxia.

If any type of chemical weapon has been used on a prisoner at the time he wastaken into custody, the prisoner should be decontaminated prior to transport,if possible, and monitored closely by the transporting officer for any signs ofillness.

Seat Belt Use

All departments should have a mandatory seat belt use policy for the protectionof the officers, the prisoners they transport, and the welfare of the generalpublic, as well as for the purpose of reducing worker's compensation claims andinjuries by members of your work force.The law enforcement cop-out that safety belts “prevent me from exiting myvehicle quickly at an emergency situation” is a myth that portrays safetybelts as unsafe and should not be tolerated. Officers can get in and out of acar using the seat belt almost as quickly as those who do not. Seat belts hold the driver in place so that he is less likely to losecontrol in a minor collision or during a pursuit. In a vehicle equipped withautomatic shoulder harnesses, it is doubly important that the lap belt befastened because of instances where motorists wearing only the shoulder harnesshave been decapitated in a crash. Even if a vehicle is equipped with air bags,the seat belts are important to hold the driver behind the wheel and preventinjuries in side and rear collisions.The legal ramifications of allowing your officers to disregard the seat belt ina police vehicle are far-reaching and generally negative. Any decision toimplement a non-mandatory seat belt policy should be made only afterconsultation with the department’s legal advisor.

Fuel Economy

In times of budget restraints, fuel economy is essential for efficientoperation of the department. You need to plan for those events that may requirea cutback on active patrol.

Computerized records of the fuel mileage of various vehicles will indicatedrivers whose uneconomical driving habits may make them candidates foradditional training in economical driving. Various policies, such as “park, talk and walk,” as well as thosethat encourage an officer to avoid excessive idling of the vehicle's engine,are important to be in place and enforced. Even in states with a cold climate,devices are available that will recirculate the heat from the heater core ofthe vehicle and keep the interior of the vehicle warm for a period of time evenwith the engine shut off.

Vehicle Purchase Policy

In many cases, your vehicle purchase policy will be dictated by a centralizedpurchasing agency, which may have little or no knowledge of police vehiclerequirements.

Develop a rapport with people in the centralized purchasing agency to make themmore aware of your needs and requirements. You might even invite for apurchasing agent to go on a ride-along with an officer to gain a fullerappreciation of how the police vehicle is the officer's “place ofbusiness” for eight or more hours a day, as well as the fact that theexposure to high-speed driving conditions in all kinds of weather makes policeofficers more likely than the general public to be exposed to a crash. The sizeand weight of a vehicle is still an important factor in surviving a crash. Thisfact, in addition to the need to transport prisoners, is more than amplejustification for the purchase of full-size police vehicles.

When deciding the type of vehicles to be purchased, a state police or highwaypatrol may require a different type than those driven by city police. The sizeof the engine will also depend on your individual needs. Certain units, such asK-9 or SWAT teams or vehicles that must patrol country roads, may have specialrequirements such as those met by vans, four-wheel drive vehicles, and stationwagons.

Despite the unfavorable collision record of motorcycles, with proper vehicleselection and intensive training, motorcycle patrols can be extremely effectivein rapidly transporting officers through congested traffic conditions to thescene of an emergency. They also provide an extremely low-profile way toapprehend habitual traffic violators who have acquired the knack of spotting aconventional cruiser, as well as a means of escorting dignitaries or leadingparades.

If unmarked vehicles are utilized in your fleet, your policy shouldprovide that totally unmarked vehicles driven by plainclothes officers shouldnever be used to stop a motorist except under extreme emergency conditions.Likewise, they should undertake a pursuit only under the most extremeconditions, and then should relinquish the pursuit at the earliest possibleopportunity when a marked unit is available.

When an unmarked unit stops a motorist, especially a female motorist late atnight, it may be advisable to dispatch a marked unit to the scene as soon aspossible to take over the situation.

Vehicle Specifications

You should analyze the needs of your department before preparing vehicle bidspecifications. You will want to survey departments of similar size anddemographic makeup to determine how they rate specifications for theirvehicles. You may wish to look at items such as fuel economy, acceleration, theavailability of air bags, and top-end performance.

The protocol for acceptance or nonacceptance of bids should include developinga formula that considers not only the bid price but also the performancecapabilities of the vehicle. For example, the formula might give 100 points forthe base price, meaning the bidder with the lowest price gets 100 points in thebidding process. Then, vehicle dynamics could account for up to 20 points,acceleration, 30 points, braking deceleration, 10 points, top speed, 30 points,ergonomics and capability of accommodating communications gear, 10 points, andfuel economy by city EPA standards, 10 points.

You may want to specify certain items of equipment such as undercoating, gasshocks, a power seat, power door locks, wiring and ignition main power, ashtrayrelocation for radio equipment, cruise control, silicon radiator hoses, bumperguards front and rear, locking gas caps with three keys, power windows, powerdisconnect for the rear windows, an anti-theft system, and built-inradio wiring in your acceptance formula.

Suspension Systems

Suspension systems in police package vehicles are conducive to fast corneringand turning, and allow the driver to take severe bumps without interfering withthe control of the vehicle. If you do not specify a police suspension on yourvehicles, you sacrifice ease of driving, officer comfort, ability to pursue andapprehend, and good tire wear characteristics.

Ease of Maintenance

Although a minor consideration in most instances, maintenance might cost you alot of money if you bid a foreign or non-standard vehicle. An inconveniencesuch as an inaccessible oil filter can be an expensive proposition when youhave a fleet of several cars with the same problem.

Studies and Testing

The Michigan State Police testing program is probably the best in the nationfor testing police vehicles from every U.S. and some foreign manufacturers.Copies of these studies are available on an annual basis from the MichiganState Police and from the Bureau of Justice Assistance's Technology AssessmentProgram.

Vehicle Equipment

The following cautions and concerns apply to the purchase of police vehicleequipment.

Strobe Lights.

If you will be patrolling areas afflicted with a lot offog, rain or other inclement weather, you should give consideration to usingstrobe lights mounted on the exterior of the vehicle. Strobe lights also drawless current and are easier on the battery. However, unless strobe lights areproperly set up, they can be extremely blinding to both motorists and theofficers themselves, and there have been concerns that strobe lights flashingat a certain frequency may trigger seizure-type disorders in some individuals.Devices are available to control the intensity of strobe lights.

Radar.

If your vehicle is equipped with radar, certain safety precautionsshould be provided to prevent unnecessary expo-sure of the officer to microwaveradiation. Current information indicates that modern radar sets emit lessradiation than a cellular phone or a portable radio. However, it is stilladvisable to make sure that the radar antenna is always pointing away from thedriver or passengers, and if a hand-held radar set is utilized, that it isturned off and stored on the seat when not in use, never in the lap of thedriver. All radar equipment within the vehicle should be properly secured toprotect the officer in the event of an accident or high-speed emergencyoperations.

Siren.

A siren should be placed in a location to the front of the vehicle tominimize noise levels when broadcasting on the car radio.

Color.

Studies have shown that a white color is the most visible for patrolvehicles. There are many schools of thought regarding the painting, stripingand coloring of police vehicles. The key here is distinctiveness: You want yourvehicles to be readily identified by the public and to instill a sense of pridein the department and the community.

Cage.

Equipping your patrol vehicles with a cage and roll bar will providesafety for both the officers and any prisoners that are transported.

Tires.

Tires should be the type that is speed rated for highway patrolor city work, as is appropriate.With the advent of air bags in both the passenger and driver side of modernpatrol vehicles, the mounting of needed equipment becomes more difficult. Underno circumstances should these safety devices ever be disconnected. The radioand other equip-ment needs to be placed in a location where the officer canreadily access it without taking his eyes off the road. If that is notpossible, then position them a little lower so that the sense of touch can getthe officer into the system or using controls that he needs in order tofunction properly. Many police equipment manufacturers now produce mountingracks that are compatible with air bags.We hope this brief outline of items to be taken into consideration in the areaof traffic enforcement policy will be of value to you. Additional informationmay be obtained by reading the periodic model policies issued by the IACPPolicy Center and the Citizens for Effective Law Enforcement.

Motorcycle units are a specialized enforcement tool capable of many diverseassignments. A decision to activate a specialty unit of this nature requireslong-term management commitment because the expense of such a unit and the useof personnel is often questioned. A successful motorcycle unit requires theassignment of qualified personnel, quality equipment and appropriatemanage-ment direction. Such a unit can contribute significantly towardsextremely effective public relations, the resolution of specific problems thatcannot be handled by a normal patrol vehicle, and additional careeropportunities for line personnel.

Goal Orientation

The motorcycle unit should not be the result of a haphazard managementdecision. If you are considering a unit for a medium-to large-size lawenforcement agency, plan for an entire detachment or squad consisting of atleast six motor officers and a sergeant. Anything less is really notcost-effective or productive. (Such assignments as DARE motorcycles will not beincluded in this discussion, as this type of vehicle is used for a specialsafety education assignment.)

Patrol Activities

A motor unit should be used in conjunction with accident problem areas, citizencomplaints, special emphasis patrols, or other specific assignments. As anormal practice, the unit should not be assigned to work during the hours ofdarkness. This type of unit works best when it is highly visible. Citizens seeone motorcycle in an area, and they comment to their friends and neighbors that theyhave seen a motorcycle working that specific place. However, when fourmotorcycles are observed working an area, the same civilians will report seeinga “dozen motorcycles stopping every violator.” The motor units are soversatile they can work traffic in all directions and have the ability to getto the violator in congested traffic areas. Ideal work assignments for motorunits are speed and HOV (restricted commuter lane) enforcement areas, but theycan be used for almost any type of assignment. For prisoner transportationpurposes, however, consideration must be given to the proximity andavailability of conventional patrol units.

The key to patrol assignments is repetition. First, identify the problem andproblem area. Assign the motor unit to the location for a week; then return tothe problem area once or twice the following week and periodically each monthafter that. The motor-ing public will associate that area with motorcycleenforcement. The motor unit thus becomes extremely effective in solving thatspecific problem. This type of enforcement must be done as a unit to beeffective.

Training

Training is a must. If your agency cannot train or have the motor officertrained properly, do not consider a motor unit. A minimum of two weeks ofmotorcycle EVOC (Emergency Vehicle Operations Course) training should bemandatory, and a yearly recertification program is highly recommended. Withoutthe proper training and a commitment to officer safety, your program would beprone to failure. The commitment is costly, but the results are worth it.

Cost

A motorcycle unit is expensive to equip and to maintain. The motorcycles needservicing every